Table of ContentAbout the Authors...........................................xix
1 Introduction...................................1
1.1 Fundamentals of Wireless Networks....................................................1
1.1.1 Bluetooth...............................2
1.1.2 IrDA.........................................3
1.1.2.1 Comparison of Bluetooth and IrDA.................3
1.1.3 HomeRF...........................4
1.1.3.1 Comparison of Bluetooth with Shared
Wireless Access Protocol (SWAP)......................5
1.1.4 802.11 (WiFi).........................7
1.1.5 802.16 (WiMax)...........................7
1.1.6 Hotspots......................................8
1.1.7 Mesh Networking..................................8
1.1.7.1 Limitation of Wireless Technology....................9
1.2 Wireless Internet............................................9
1.2.1 IP Limitations.....................................11
1.2.2 Mobile Internet Protocol (IP)...........................11
1.2.2.1 Working of Mobile IP.............................12
1.2.3 Discovering the Care-of Address..........................15
1.2.4 Registering the Care-of Address.............................161.2.5 Authentication.........................................17
1.2.6 Automatic Home Agent Discovery.............................18
1.2.7 Tunneling to the Care-of Address..........................................18
1.2.8 Issues in Mobile IP.................................................................19
1.2.8.1 Routing Inefficiencies.............................................19
1.2.8.2 Security Issues........................................................19
1.2.8.3 Ingress Filtering......................................................20
1.2.8.4 User Perceptions of Reliability................................20
1.2.8.5 Issues in IP Addressing...........................................20
1.2.8.6 Slow Growth in the Wireless Local Area
Network (LAN) Market.........................................21
1.2.8.7 Competition from Other Protocols........................21
1.3 What Are Ad Hoc Networks?............................................................21
1.3.1 Differences between Cellular and Ad Hoc
Wireless Networks.................................................................23
1.3.2 Applications of Ad Hoc Wireless Networks............................23
1.3.3 Technical and Research Challenges........................................25
1.3.3.1 Security Issues and Challenges...............................25
1.3.3.2 Different Types of Attacks on Multicast
Routing Protocols.....................................................26
1.3.3.3 Interconnection of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
and the Internet......................................................27
1.3.4 Issues in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks......................................27
1.3.4.1 Medium Access Control (MAC) Protocol
Research Issues.......................................................28
1.3.4.2 Networking Issues..................................................28
1.3.4.3 Ad Hoc Routing and Forwarding...........................29
1.3.4.4 Unicast Routing.....................................................29
1.3.4.5 Multicast Routing..................................................31
1.3.4.6 Location-Aware Routing........................................32
1.3.4.7 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) Issues.........32
1.3.4.8 Network Security...................................................33
1.3.4.9 Different Security Attacks......................................33
1.3.4.10 Security at Data-Link Layer.................................. 34
1.3.4.11 Secure Routing...................................................... 34
1.3.4.12 Quality of Service (QoS)........................................35
1.4 Problems............................................................................................35
Bibliography...............................................................................................35
2 MAC Layer Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks...........................37
2.1 Introduction......................................................................................37
2.2 Important Issues and the Need for Medium Access Control
(MAC) Protocols...............................................................................38
2.2.1 Need for Special MAC Protocols............................................39
2.3 Classification of MAC Protocols....................................................... 40
2.3.1 Contention-Based MAC Protocols.........................................41
2.3.2 Contention-Based MAC Protocols with
Reservation Mechanisms....................................................... 42
2.3.2.1 Multiple Access Collision Avoidance (MACA)...... 42
2.3.2.2 IEEE 802.11 MAC Scheme................................... 44
2.3.2.3 Multiple Access Collision Avoidance—
by Invitation (MACA-BI)......................................45
2.3.2.4 Group Allocation Multiple Access with
Packet Sensing (GAMA-PS)...................................45
2.3.3 MAC Protocols Using Directional Antennas......................... 46
2.3.4 Multiple-Channel MAC Protocols.........................................47
2.3.4.1 Dual Busy Tone Multiple Access (DBTMA)..........48
2.3.4.2 Multichannel Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA) MAC Protocol.........................................49
2.3.4.3 Hop-Reservation Multiple Access (HRMA)..........49
2.3.4.4 Multichannel Medium Access Control
(MMAC)...............................................................50
2.3.4.5 Dynamic Channel Assignment with
Power Control (DCA-PC)......................................51
2.3.5 Power-Aware or Energy-Efficient MAC Protocols...................51
2.3.5.1 Power-Aware Medium Access Control with
Signaling (PAMAS)...............................................52
2.3.5.2 Dynamic Power-Saving Mechanism (DPSM)........52
2.3.5.3 Power Control Medium Access Control (PCM)......53
2.3.5.4 Power-Controlled Multiple Access (PCMA)..........54
2.4 Summary...........................................................................................55
2.5 Problems............................................................................................55
Bibliography...............................................................................................56
3 Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks.....................................59
3.1 Introduction......................................................................................59
3.2 Design Issues of Routing Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks................ 60
3.2.1 Routing Architecture............................................................ 60
3.2.2 Unidirectional Links Support.................................................61
3.2.3 Usage of SuperHosts..............................................................62
3.2.4 Quality of Service (QoS) Routing..........................................62
3.2.5 Multicast Support..................................................................63
3.3 Classification of Routing Protocols................................................... 64
3.3.1 Proactive, Reactive, and Hybrid Routing...............................65
3.3.2 Structuring and Delegating the Routing Task....................... 66
3.3.3 Exploiting Network Metrics for Routing................................67
3.3.4 Evaluating Topology, Destination, and Location for
Routing..................................................................................67
3.4 Proactive Routing Protocols...............................................................68
3.4.1 Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP).........................................68
3.4.1.1 Overview................................................................69
3.4.1.2 Information Maintained at Each Node..................70
3.4.1.3 Information Exchanged among Nodes...................71
3.4.1.4 Routing-Table Updating.........................................72
3.4.2 Destination-Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)..................72
3.4.2.1 Distance Vector......................................................72
3.4.2.2 Operating DSDV at Layer 2.................................. 77
3.4.2.3 Extending Base Station Coverage.......................... 77
3.4.3 Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) Protocol.................. 77
3.4.3.1 Protocol Overview..................................................78
3.4.3.2 Multipoint Relays (MPRs).....................................79
3.4.3.3 Protocol Functioning............................................ 80
3.4.3.4 Core Functioning.................................................. 80
3.4.4 Fisheye State Routing (FSR)...................................................82
3.5 Reactive Routing Protocols............................................................... 84
3.5.1 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV)....................85
3.5.1.1 Path Discovery.......................................................86
3.5.1.2 Reverse-Path Setup.................................................86
3.5.1.3 Forward-Path Setup...............................................87
3.5.1.4 Route Table Management......................................88
3.5.1.5 Path Maintenance..................................................88
3.5.1.6 Local Connectivity Management...........................89
3.5.2 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) Protocol............................ 90
3.5.2.1 Overview and Important Properties of the
Protocol................................................................. 90
3.5.2.2 Basic DSR Route Discovery...................................92
3.5.2.3 Basic DSR Route Maintenance..............................94
3.5.3 Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA).................95
3.5.4 Cluster-Based Routing Protocol (CBRP)................................97
3.5.5 Location-Aided Routing (LAR).............................................98
3.5.5.1 Route Discovery Using Flooding............................98
3.5.6 Ant Colony-Based Routing Algorithm (ARA).......................99
3.5.6.1 Basic Ant Algorithm............................................100
3.6 Hybrid Routing Protocols................................................................101
3.6.1 Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP)..............................................101
3.6.1.1 Motivation...........................................................102
3.6.1.2 Architecture.........................................................102
3.6.1.3 Routing................................................................104
3.6.1.4 Route Maintenance..............................................105
3.6.1.5 Query-Control Mechanisms................................105
3.6.1.6 Query Detection..................................................106
3.6.1.7 Early Termination................................................107
3.6.1.8 Random Query-Processing Delay........................107
3.6.1.9 Caching................................................................108
3.6.2 Zone-Based Hierarchical Link State (ZHLS).......................108
3.6.2.1 Zone Map............................................................109
3.6.2.2 Hierarchical Structure of ZHLS..........................109
3.7 Summary.........................................................................................110
3.8 Problems.......................................................................................... 111
Bibliography.............................................................................................112
4 Multicast Routing Protocols for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks................115
4.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 115
4.2 Issues in Designing a Multicast Routing Protocol...........................116
4.3 Classification of Multicast Routing Protocols.................................. 117
4.3.1 Based on Topology............................................................... 117
4.3.1.1 Tree-Based Multicast............................................ 117
4.3.1.2 Mesh-Based Multicast..........................................118
4.3.2 Based on Initialization of the Multicast Session................... 119
4.3.3 Based on Topology Maintenance Mechanism...................... 119
4.3.4 Based on Zone Routing........................................................ 119
4.3.4.1 Protocol Overview: Mesh Establishment Phase....120
4.3.4.2 Source Zone Creation..........................................121
4.3.4.3 Branch Zone Creation..........................................122
4.3.4.4 Zone and Route Maintenance..............................122
4.3.4.5 New Node Joining the Multicast Group..............123
4.3.4.6 Multicast Group Member Leaving the Group......123
4.3.4.7 Process for Link Breakage....................................124
4.3.4.8 Unicast Capability...............................................124
4.4 Multicast Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (MAODV)
Routing Protocol.............................................................................124
4.5 Mesh-Based Routing Protocols........................................................126
4.5.1 Data Forwarding..................................................................128
4.5.2 Soft State..............................................................................128
4.5.3 Data Structures....................................................................129
4.5.4 Unicast Capability...............................................................130
4.6 Source Routing-Based Multicast Protocol (SRMP).........................130
4.6.1 Protocol Overview................................................................131
4.6.2 Operation.............................................................................131
4.7 Multicasting with Quality-of-Service (QoS) Guarantees..................132
4.8 Energy-Efficient Multicast Routing Protocols..................................133
4.9 Application-Dependent Multicast Routing...........................................134
4.9.1 Role-Based Multicast Routing Protocol...............................134
4.9.2 Location-Based Multicast Protocol.......................................136
4.9.2.1 Location-Based Multicast Algorithm...................136
4.9.2.2 Multicast Region and Forwarding Zone..............136
4.10 Summary.........................................................................................136
4.11 Problems..........................................................................................137
Bibliography.............................................................................................137
5 Transport Protocols for Ad Hoc Networks..........................................141
5.1 Introduction....................................................................................141
5.2 Transmission Control Protocol’s (TCP’s) Challenges and
Design Issues in Ad Hoc Networks.................................................142
5.2.1 Challenges............................................................................142
5.2.1.1 Lossy Channels....................................................142
5.2.1.2 Hidden and Exposed Stations..............................143
5.2.1.3 Path Asymmetry..................................................144
5.2.1.4 Network Partition................................................145
5.2.1.5 Routing Failures...................................................146
5.2.1.6 Power Constraints................................................146
5.2.2 Design Goals........................................................................147
5.3 TCP Performance over That of Mobile Ad Hoc Networks
(MANETs)......................................................................................147
5.3.1 TCP Performance................................................................147
5.3.1.1 Noncongestion Delay...........................................147
5.3.1.2 Serial Timeouts....................................................148
5.3.1.3 Packet Size Variation............................................148
5.3.1.4 The Data and Acknowledgment (ACK) Packet
Collision Problem................................................148
5.3.2 Other Problems....................................................................149
5.3.2.1 Spread of Stale Routes..........................................149
5.3.2.2 The Medium Access Control (MAC)-Layer
Rate Adaptation Problem.....................................149
5.4 Ad Hoc Transport Protocols............................................................149
5.4.1 Split Approaches...................................................................149
5.4.1.1 Split TCP.............................................................150
5.4.2 End-to-End Approaches....................................................... 151
5.4.2.1 TCP Feedback (TCP-F)....................................... 151
5.4.2.2 Explicit Link Failure Notification (ELFN)-
Based Technique..................................................152
5.4.2.3 Ad Hoc TCP (ATCP)..........................................153
5.4.2.4 TCP Buffering Capability and Sequencing
Information (TCP-BuS).......................................154
5.4.3 Ad Hoc Transport Protocol (ATP).......................................159
5.4.3.1 The ATP Design...................................................159
5.4.4 The ATP Protocol.................................................................162
5.4.4.1 Intermediate Node...............................................162
5.4.4.2 ATP Receiver.......................................................163
5.4.4.3 ATP Sender..........................................................165
5.5 Application-Controlled Transport Protocol (ACTP).......................167
5.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages.............................................169
5.6 Summary.........................................................................................169
5.7 Problems..........................................................................................169
Bibliography.............................................................................................170
6 Quality of Service (QoS) in Ad Hoc Networks....................................173
6.1 Introduction to QoS........................................................................173
6.1.1 QoS in Different Layers.......................................................173
6.1.2 QoS Analysis........................................................................174
6.1.2.1 QoS Model..........................................................174
6.1.2.2 QoS Resource Reservation...................................174
6.1.2.3 QoS Routing........................................................175
6.1.2.4 QoS Medium Access Control Protocol.................175
6.2 Issues and Challenges Involved in Providing QoS...........................175
6.2.1 Challenges to Be Faced........................................................175
6.2.2 Issues and Design Considerations........................................176
6.2.2.1 Adaptive Services for Continuous Media Flow.....176
6.2.2.2 Separation of Routing, Signaling, and
Forwarding..........................................................176
6.2.2.3 In-Band Signaling................................................176
6.2.2.4 Soft-State Management........................................176
6.3 Classification of QoS Solutions........................................................177
6.3.1 Medium Access Control (MAC)-Layer QoS Solutions.........178
6.3.1.1 Multiple Access Collision Avoidance with
Piggyback Reservation (MACA/PR)....................179
6.3.1.2 RTMAC...............................................................179
6.3.1.3 Distributed Bandwidth Allocation/Sharing/
Extension (DBASE) Protocol...............................180
6.3.2 Network-Layer QoS Solutions..............................................180
6.3.2.1 Ticket-Based Probing (TBP)................................181
6.3.2.2 QoS Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
(AODV)...............................................................181
6.3.2.3 Core-Extraction Distributed Ad Hoc Routing
(CEDAR).............................................................184
6.3.3 QoS Model..........................................................................186
6.3.3.1 Integrated Service (IntServ) and
Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP) on
Wired Networks...................................................186
6.3.3.2 Differentiated Service (DiffServ)..........................187
6.3.3.3 Flexible QoS Model for Mobile Ad Hoc
Network (MANET) (FQMM)............................188
6.3.4 QoS Frameworks..................................................................189
6.3.4.1 INSIGNIA Framework........................................189
6.3.4.2 INSIGNIA Signaling System...............................191
6.3.4.3 INSIGNIA Protocol Commands.........................191
6.3.5 INSIGNIA Protocol Operations..........................................194
6.3.5.1 Reservation Establishment...................................194
6.3.5.2 QoS Reporting.....................................................196
6.3.5.3 Flow Restoration..................................................197
6.3.5.4 Flow Adaptation...................................................199
6.3.6 Intelligent Optimization Self-Regulated Adjustment
(INORA).............................................................................202
6.3.6.1 Coarse-Feedback Scheme.....................................202
6.3.7 Class-Based Fine Feedback Scheme..................................... 206
6.4 Summary.........................................................................................210
6.5 Problems..........................................................................................210
Bibliography.............................................................................................211
7 Energy Management Systems in Ad Hoc Wireless Networks..............213
7.1 Introduction....................................................................................213
7.1.1 Why Energy Management Is Needed in Ad Hoc
Networks..............................................................................214
7.1.2 Classification of Energy Management Schemes.................... 215
7.1.2.1 Battery Management Schemes.............................216
7.1.3 Overview of Battery Technologies........................................218
7.1.4 Principles of Battery Discharge........................................... 220
7.1.5 Impact of Discharge Characteristics on Battery Capacity.....221
7.1.5.1 Rate Capacity Effects...........................................221
7.1.5.2 Recovery Effects...................................................221
7.1.6 Battery Modeling................................................................ 222
7.1.6.1 Analytical Models............................................... 222
7.1.6.2 Electrical Circuit Models.....................................223
7.1.6.3 Stochastic Models................................................224
7.1.6.4 Electrochemical Models.......................................224
7.1.7 Battery-Driven System Design.............................................225
7.1.7.1 Battery-Efficient System Architectures.................225
7.1.7.2 Battery Scheduling and Management...................227
7.1.7.3 Battery-Efficient Traffic Shaping and Routing......229
7.1.8 Smart Battery Systems..........................................................229
7.2 Energy-Efficient Routing Protocol...................................................231
7.2.1 An Overview of IEEE 802.11 Power-Saving Mode..............232
7.2.2 Proposed Energy-Efficient Medium Access Control
(EE-MAC) Protocol............................................................ 234
7.2.2.1 Design Criteria.................................................... 234
7.2.2.2 Features of EE-MAC............................................235
7.2.2.3 Performance.........................................................236
7.3 Transmission Power Management Schemes.....................................236
7.3.1 Power Management of Ad Hoc Networks............................237
7.3.2 The Basic Idea of Power Cost Calculate Balance (PCCB)
Routing Protocol..................................................................237
7.3.2.1 The Routing Process of PCCB Routing
Protocol................................................................237
7.3.3 Analysis of the PCCB Routing Protocol...............................241
7.3.4 MAC Protocol..................................................................... 242
7.3.5 Power Saving....................................................................... 242
7.3.6 Timing Synchronization Function.......................................243
7.3.7 Power-Saving Function........................................................243
7.3.8 Power-Saving Potential.........................................................245
7.4 Transmission Power Control........................................................... 246
7.4.1 Adapting Transmission Power to the Channel State............ 246
7.4.2 MAC Techniques.................................................................247
7.4.3 Logical Link Control............................................................248
7.5 Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) Protocol................251
7.5.1 Route Discovery...................................................................251
7.5.2 Route Maintenance..............................................................252
7.6 Local Energy-Aware Routing Based on AODV (LEAR-AODV).....252
7.6.1 Route Discovery...................................................................252
7.6.2 Route Maintenance..............................................................252
7.7 Power-Aware Routing Based on AODV (PAR-AODV)...................253
7.7.1 Route Discovery...................................................................254
7.7.2 Route Maintenance..............................................................254
7.8 Lifetime Prediction Routing Based on AODV (LPR-AODV)..........254
7.8.1 Route Discovery...................................................................255
7.8.2 Route Maintenance..............................................................256
7.9 Summary.........................................................................................256
7.10 Problems..........................................................................................257
Bibliography.............................................................................................257
8 Mobility Models for Multihop Wireless Networks.............................261
8.1 Introduction....................................................................................261
8.2 Mobility Models..............................................................................262
8.2.1 Entity Mobility Model.........................................................262
8.3 Mobility Patterns.............................................................................263
8.3.1 Need for Characterization of Mobility.................................263
8.3.2 Classification of Mobility Patterns...................................... 264
8.3.2.1 Deterministic Mobility Model............................ 264
8.3.2.2 Semideterministic Mobility Pattern.....................265
8.3.2.3 Random Mobility Pattern................................... 266
8.4 Mobility Models for Mobile Ad Hoc Networks...............................267
8.4.1 Random-Based Mobility Model...........................................267
8.4.1.1 Random Waypoint Model....................................267
8.4.1.2 Limitations of the Random Waypoint Model.......269
8.4.2 Temporal Dependency Models.............................................270
8.4.2.1 Gauss-Markov Mobility Model............................271
8.4.3 Spatial Dependency Models.................................................272
8.4.3.1 Reference Point Group Mobility (RPGM)
Model...................................................................273
8.4.4 Geographic Restriction Model.............................................275
8.5 Summary........................................................................................ 277
8.6 Problems......................................................................................... 277
Bibliography............................................................................................ 277
9 Cross-Layer Design Issues for Ad Hoc Wireless Networks.................281
9.1 Introduction....................................................................................281
9.2 Cross-Layer Design Principle...........................................................282
9.3 Proposals Involving Cross-Layer Design......................................... 284
9.4 Cross-Layer Design: Is It Worth Applying It?..................................285
9.5 Cross-Layer Design in Wireless Networks...................................... 286
9.5.1 Fundamental Advantages Offered by a
Layered Architecture........................................................... 286
9.6 Performance Objectives...................................................................287
9.6.1 Maximizing Total Capacity..................................................287
9.6.2 Max–Min Fairness.............................................................. 288
9.6.3 Utility Fairness.................................................................... 288
9.7 Pitfalls of the Cross-Layer Design Approach....................................289
9.7.1 Cost of Development...........................................................289
9.7.2 Performance versus Longevity..............................................289
9.7.3 Interaction and Unintended Consequences..........................289
9.7.4 Stability................................................................................290
9.8 Summary.........................................................................................290
9.9 Problems..........................................................................................291
Bibliography.............................................................................................291
10 Applications and Recent Developments in Ad Hoc Networks............293
10.1 Introduction....................................................................................293
10.2 Typical Applications........................................................................295
10.2.1 Personal Area Network (PAN).............................................296
10.3 Applications and Opportunities.......................................................297
10.3.1 Search-and-Rescue Applications...........................................297
10.3.2 Defense Applications............................................................298
10.3.3 Health Care Applications.....................................................299
10.3.4 Academic Environment Applications...................................299
10.3.5 Industrial Environment Applications.................................. 300
10.4 Challenges...................................................................................... 300
10.4.1 Security................................................................................302
10.5 Highlights of the Most Recent Developments in the Field............. 304
10.5.1 Sensors................................................................................ 304
10.5.2 Wireless Ad Hoc Sensor Networks.......................................305
10.6 Summary.........................................................................................305
10.7 Problems..........................................................................................305
Index........................................................................................................... 307
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